Articles
“Who Were the Wise Men?”
Now after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of Herod the king, behold, wise men from the east came to Jerusalem saying, “Where is he who has been born king of the Jews? For we saw his star when it rose and have come to worship him.”
Matthew 2:1-2
“We three kings of Orient are.” The opening line of the popular carol assumes that there were three individuals and that they were kings. However, Matthew tells us only that three gifts were presented; it does not specify how many people brought them. Furthermore, Matthew describes the visitors as “magi”—a Latin word derived from Old Persian via Greek, which means “magicians” or “wise men,” not kings. The idea that they were kings likely stems from an effort to connect Matthew’s account with certain Messianic prophecies. Psalm 72:10–11 speaks of “kings” bringing gifts to the Messiah (although it mentions them coming from Tarshish, which is to the west). Isaiah 60:6 specifies gifts of gold and frankincense being brought by Gentiles on “camels," which explains the familiar image on Christmas cards of the magi silhouetted against the desert, riding camels across sand dunes.
Matthew doesn’t tell us much about these figures. They were likely pagan astronomer-astrologers—in those days, there was no distinction between observing the heavens and interpreting them—who came “from the east.” These “wise men" correctly interpreted a bright object in the sky (the term “star” could refer to a comet, planetary alignment or some other astronomical phenomena) as signaling the birth of a new “king of the Jews.” Motivated by this sign, they traveled a great distance to pay homage and present gifts to this king (Mt. 2:1–12). Beyond the biblical text, we enter the realm of speculation. While we can make a few educated guesses, we must remember that if the identity and background of the magi were essential, Matthew would have provided more detail.
In ancient Mesopotamia, it was believed that the gods communicated to kings through signs in the heavens. Diviners were scholars who identified and interpreted these signs from a list of omens. The most important of these is the Enuma Anu Enlil (~1500-1000 BC), a collection of about seventy tablets, which diviners used to counsel kings about the future. If the omens were bad, they performed rituals to avert the danger. This kind of celestial divination was especially popular in Babylon when Daniel served as the “chief of the magicians, enchanters, Chaldeans, and astrologers” (Dan. 5:11), but later Persian and Greek rulers sometimes consulted Babylonian astrologers.
For example, Diodorus of Sicily (1st century AD) reports that the Chaldeans predicted Alexander the Great’s victory over Darius of Persia (Library of History, 2.31). While the text doesn’t specify what led to this prediction, a lunar eclipse was visible in Babylon on September 21, 331 BC—just ten days before the decisive Battle of Gaugamela. The Greek historian Arrian of Nicomedia (AD 86-160) corroborates this and also records that a delegation of Babylonians met Alexander with gifts and offered to surrender the city to him (Anabasis of Alexander, 3.16.3). The Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus (c. AD 50) describes Alexander’s triumphal entry into Babylon, with roads strewn with flowers and lined with silver altars burning frankincense and other perfumes. He notes that Alexander was met first with gifts, then magi, and then Chaldeans (History of Alexander, 5.19-22). According to Diodorus, eight years later, in 323 BC, Babylonian diviners predicted Alexander’s death by interpreting celestial signs (Library of History, 17.112).
The Enuma Anu Enlil omen list also contains predictions about the coming of a “king of the world.” One such prediction appears in a commentary on Tablet 7, which reads: “Sin [the moon god], (if) during his rising one star proceeds behind him: a king of the world (šar kiššati) will rise, but he will not become old.” This text predates Alexander the Great, who is also referred to as šar kiššati (“king of the world”) in an astronomical diary from 331 BC. However, we do not know whether this omen was ever interpreted in reference to him.
Could Matthew’s “wise men” have drawn from such a text to interpret Jesus as the “king of the Jews”? If so, how did an entry like this find its way into the omen lists? Was it perhaps planted there by Daniel generations before? Could it have been influenced by the prophetic words of the ancient pagan diviner Balaam, who declared, “A star will come from Jacob, and a scepter will arise out of Israel” (Num. 24:17)? Did they hear stories of the coming “king of the Jews” from Israelite exiles? Were Matthew’s magi from Babylon or somewhere else?
All of this is speculative—interesting to consider in light of Jesus who is “the bright morning star” (Rev. 22:16). Asking such questions can be thought-provoking, but when we lack solid evidence, speculation is often unhelpful and can even become dangerous if our imaginations are not well-disciplined.
We also face a theological tension when we remember that practices like divination and interpreting omens are explicitly forbidden in the Torah (Deut. 18:9–14). Ancient Israelites would have considered such astrologers as deluded and foolish (Isa. 44:24-25; 47:13-14). Yet this very tension may highlight the grace and wisdom of God—that he chose to communicate truth to pagan Gentiles in a way they could understand, even while they were engaged in practices condemned by the Torah.
Matthew clearly presents the magi in a positive light, especially when contrasted with Herod and the religious leaders in Jerusalem who knew the correct prophecy regarding the Messiah’s birthplace (Mt. 2:4–6; cf. Mic. 5:2). While they responded with indifference and fear (“troubled”), the magi responded with joy, traveling a great distance and acting on the limited revelation they had. They humbled themselves before Christ (Mt. 2:11a) and honored him with their wealth (2:11b; cf. Isa. 60:1-7). In this way, the true “King of the world” was welcomed not only by ordinary Jews like shepherds (Lk. 2:8–20) but also by extraordinary Gentiles like these “wise men” (Mt. 2:10–11). Indeed, the Gospel is for all!
